Greenland - Its History, Geography, and Nature ... and, of course, its native orchids

I am sure that if we think back to our schooldays we will remember from our geography lessons that we learnt, or at least thought, that Greenland was an inhospitable country, cold, barren, only snow and ice, cold throughout the year and only inhabited by Eskimos who lived by hunting seals, walruses, polar bears and musk oxen. If we had paused then we might have asked ourselves how it got its name. We now know that it was given its name "Green Land" by it's discoverer, the Norwegian Viking king, Erik the Red, from nearby Iceland around 982 AD. It was given the name, not as a description of that land but in order to make it attractive to potential settlers. The climate back in those early days was, in fact, somewhat milder than now.

Fig. 1. Greenland - The bridge and stepping stone between North America and Europe. Left, inset: Greenland as part of N. America. Right: Greenland and islands.

It is also the general belief that North America was discovered shortly after around the year 1000 AD by Leif Eriksson, the second son of Erik the Red. Leif Eriksson sailed west from Greenland and founded a couple of colonies in what is today, Canada. It is thought they were on Baffin Island and the tip of Newfoundland which is thought to be his Vinland. If this is true then Greenland is truly the bridge and stepping-stone between Europe and North America (Fig. 1).

The Geography of Greenland

Physiographically, Greenland is the world's largest island, with 2.17 million square kilometers (840 thousand square miles). Australia is considerably larger, with 7.7 million square kilometers but it is regarded as a continent. Greenland "belongs to" and is part of the North American continent, but economically it is part of Europe. Greenland was earlier a part of Norway, but in modern times it has always been connected with Denmark, first as a province of Denmark but now as a Dependent Territory. There is also a US permanent presence on Greenland by the Thule Airbase on the northwest coast, which was built during WW II in 1941.

Fig. 2. The Nordic Council countries and associated territories.

Politically, Greenland is a part of Scandinavia. Since 2009 it has gained some limited self-rule but Denmark is still in charge of foreign affairs, security and financial policy. Although there is a strong will for independence because of its culture, Greenland remains heavily dependent on Denmark, with two-thirds of its budget coming from that nation. Clearly, Scandinavia, or at least the Nordic Council (Fig. 2), considers the Associated territories of Faroe Islands and Greenland as belonging to Denmark, Svalbard to Norway, and Åland to Finland.

The population of Greenland is small, only around 57,000, 88% of which are native, pure or mixed with European blood, Inuits. The remaining 12% are Europeans, mostly Danes. This population of Greenland has the lowest population density in the world's countries. Its people live in settlements and towns along the ice-free coast; mostly in the south and southwest and around the fjords. The capital Nuuk has a population of around 15,000.

One particularly interesting aspect of Greenland is its geography. The southernmost point, Cape Farewell, lies at 59° 46' N latitude, approximately the same as Stockholm and the Orkney Islands, and the northern tip, Cape Morris Jesup, is at 83° 37' N. latitude. The capital Nuuk is at 64° 10' N just south of the Arctic Circle (at 66° 33' N). More than two thirds of Greenland is within the Arctic Circle, in fact the Geographic North Pole which is 1700 km north of the Artic Circle is only 574 km from the northern tip of Greenland. Approximately 80% of Greenland is covered by the ice cap which is at the most three to four kilometers thick. The ice cap area appears to be gradually shrinking as indicated by the breakaway of a large ice shelf as large as 4 times as Manhattan Island earlier in August 2010.

Greenland is also the home of the world's largest national park. Northeast Greenland National Park is located in the northeastern area and covers 972,000 sq kms. This barren snow covered park (which is larger in area than, for example, than the UK and France combined) houses the world's largest herds of musk oxen and other Artic fauna. It also has a Danish research and military base. Because of the ice conditions, the northern coast is accessible by ship only once every 5 to 10 years. To the west, Greenland's closest neighbours are the Canadian islands; Ellesmere Island in the Queen Elizabeth Islands, and Baffin Island. To the east, Greenland's closest neighbour is Iceland.

Greenland's Climate

Fig. 3. Köppens-Geiger World Climate Map.

The climate of Greenland can be summarized by long cold and dark winters and short intensive cool summers. Temperatures during the month of January can get as low as -26° C. (-18° F.), with summer temperatures in July reaching as high as +10° C. (50° F.).The available climate maps (e.g. the Köppen-Geiger World Map of climate classification (Fig. 3)) show Greenland being dominated by the Continental Ice Cap climate zone whilst the coastal area and fjords are considered tundra climate. But don't be fooled. There is a lot more to Greenland than just the ice sheet and icebergs!

Although Greenland geographically "belongs" to North America, the majority of plant species originate from Europe. Despite the apparent harsh climate and temperatures, but due to the intense Artic summers a total of 575 species (606 taxa) of vascular plants are to be found, 13 of which are endemic only to Greenland.

Fig. 4. Greenland climate map.

During the brief and intense Arctic summer the mountain landscapes are adorned with a wealth of colors from flowers, herbs, mosses and heather. The richest plant growth is found in the sub-arctic belt, which includes only the very southernmost part of Greenland and the inner fjords (Fig. 4). The greater part of Greenland, however, has diverse mountain vegetation, reminiscent of northern Scandinavia. In the driest inland areas, the vegetation is similar to that found in mountainous regions of central North America.

Just like its neighbour Iceland, no real forest is to be found except for the stunted, small, and dwarfed trees that grow in the innermost fjords in Southern Greenland. Further north, above the Artic Circle and close to Baffin Island, is Disko Island which is a paradise for flora-lovers. Half of Greenland's more than 500 species of flowering plants, horsetails and ferns are found on this old volcanic island.

Greenland's Orchid Flora

Representatives of five different genera of native orchids are found on Greenland.

1. Galearis rotundifolia (Banks ex Pursh) R.M.Bateman, Ann. Bot. (Oxford) 104: 439 (2009).

Amerorchis rotundifolia (Banks ex Pursh) Hultén, Ark. Bot., a.s.,7(1): 34 (1967 publ. 1968).

Amerorchis rotundifolia f. angustifolia (J.Rousseau) P.M.Br., Wild Orchids Canad. Marit. & Gr. Lakes: 284 (2006).

Amerorchis rotundifolia f. beckettii (B.Boivin) Hultén, Ark. Bot., a.s.,7(1): 34 (1967 publ. 1968).

Amerorchis rotundifolia f. immaculata Mazurski & Laur P.Johnson, Lindleyana 10:1 (1995).

Amerorchis rotundifolia f. lineata (Mousley) Hultén, Ark. Bot., a.s.,7(1): 34 (1967 publ. 1968).

Amerorchis rotundifolia f. lineata (Mousley) W.J.Schenk, Orchidee (Hamburg) 28: 98 (1997).

Amerorchis rotundifolia f. rosea P.M.Br., N. Amer. Native Orchid J. 10: 34 (2004 publ. 2005).

Amerorchis rotundifolia f. wardii P.M.Br., N. Amer. Native Orchid J. 10: 34 (2004 publ. 2005).

Fig. 5. Plant in flower, G. rotundifolia.

Plant: Terrestrial, short spike, up to 35 cm tall but often dwarfed, single solitary ovate basal leaf hugging the ground. The frost resistant stem is tender and rises next to the leaf in the spring to bear up the flower spike. Roots are frail and fibrous from a slender rhizome, which does not like heat or acid. Leaf; 3-7 cm long, fleshy, dull green, sheathing the leafless stem. (Fig. 5)

Fig. 6. Inflorescence, G. rotundifolia.

Flower description: Flower spike; 7 - 15 cms, of up to 15 flowers, pale pink, white to mauve, with purple spots, upper showy sepals flowers, prominent red/mauve/purple spotting, rarely with broad, longitudinal, reddish bars, on a three lobed white lip, ovate in outline, lateral lobes spreading. 12-15 mm long; lip broad, 4-lobed, 6-9 mm long with prominent middle lobe. Lateral petals form a hood on top of the flower. Spur slender 12 mm long, curved, much shorter than lip. (Fig. 6)

Habitat: Moist but good drainage limestone barrens, bogs, moors, fens and open tundra, calcareous coniferous boreal forests with good moisture. Thrives in the humus of dry spruce needles but sometimes in shaded bogs with cool moist beds of Sphagnum moss.

Fig. 7. Distribution of G. rotundifolia in N. America. Map from Luer (1976) p. 419.

Distribution Range: Apart from Greenland Galearis rotundifolia is endemic to North America from Alaska to Newfoundland south to Montana, Wyoming; Minnesota to Maine. (Fig. 7)

Comments: This native orchid is only found in North America and on Greenland and is not found on the European Continent. It is rare in the eastern U.S., but locally abundant on the northwestern North American continent.

2. Platanthera hyperborea (L.) Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orchid. Pl.: 287 (1835).

Platanthera hyperborea var. convallariifolia (Fisch. Ex Lindl.) Kraenzl., Orchid Gen. Sp. 1: 642 (1901).

Platanthera hyperborea subsp. dilatata (Pursh.) Rchb. f. in H.G.L.Reichenbach, Icon. Fl. Germ. Helv. 13-14: 126 (1851).

Platanthera hyperborea var. dilatata (Pursh) Kraenzl., Orchid Gen. Sp. 642 (1901).

Platanthera hyperborea var. dilatatoides Hultén, Fl. Aleutian Isl.: 141 (1937).

Platanthera hyperborea var. gracilis (Lindl.) Luer, Native Orchids U.S & Canada excluding Florida: 232 (1975).

Platanthera hyperborea subsp. graminea Rchb. f. in H.G.L.Reichenbach, Icon. Fl. Germ. Helv. 13-14: 126 (1851).

Platanthera hyperborea var. huronensis (Nutt.) Luer, Native Orchids U.S & Canada excluding Florida: 232 (1975).

Platanthera hyperborea var. leucostachys (Lindl.) Kraenzl., Orchid Gen. Sp. 1: 642 (1901).

Platanthera hyperborea var. major Lange, Consp. Fl. Groenland.: 118 (1880).

Platanthera hyperborea var. makinoi (Y.Yabe) Takeda, Icon. Jap. Alpine Pl.: 89 (1933).

Platanthera hyperborea var. minor Lange, Consp. Fl. Groenland.: 118 (1880).

Platanthera hyperborea var. purpurescens (Rydb.) Luer, Native Orchids & Canada excluding Florida: 234 (1975).

Platanthera hyperborea var. viridiflora (Cham.) Luer, Native Orchids & Canada excluding Florida: 234 (1975).

This native orchid is found in North America including Alaska, the Aleutians and into Japan to the west and to the east in Greenland and Iceland but not elsewhere on the European Continent. P. hyperborea is the only one of the seven (+ three varieties) North American Platanthera species found on Greenland.

Europe has four Platanthera species including P. hyperborea (on Iceland) and two abundant species in the temperate & boreal climate zone - P. chlorantha (known throughout temperate Eurasia and in northwest Africa) and P. bifolia. Platanthera bifolia (L.) Rich., De Orchid. Eur.: 35 (1817). is known from Scandanavia across Eurasia into Japan and Korea. P. bifolia subsp. bifolia is known in Scandanavia and elsewhere in Mediterranean Europe and eastward throughout Eurasia into Mongolia. The rare P. obtusata subsp. oligantha occurs only in a restricted area in north Norway & Sweden, but has been widely recorded throughout subarctic Eurasia (ALT BRY IRK KRA TVA YAK 31 KAM KHA MAG). There are four other Platanthera species endemic to the Mediterranean region & the Azores.

Fig. 8. Plants of Platanthera hyperborea.

Plant: Terrestrial, spike, up to 10 - 40 cm tall but often dwarfed. Can be up to 100 cms tall in North America. Leaves; The slender or stout stem has 5 - 6 oblong to linear leaves clasping the stem. Roots: frail and fibrous from a slender rhizome, which do not like heat or acid. (Fig. 8)

Fig. 9. Inflorescence, P. hyperborea.

Flower description: Flower spike; often small and compact densely flowered with few flowers but varieties with numerous flowers can occur especially in North America. Flowers are greenish yellow to green; lateral sepals spreading or bending outward, 4 - 6 mm; dorsal sepals are concave, obtuse, 3 - 5 mm, forming a hood; petals sickle-shaped, obtuse, hanging, 4 - 7 mm long and 1.5 - 3 mm wide. (Fig. 9) Spur; 3 - 6 mm, cylindrical arching downward and about equal to the lip in length.

Pollinators: P. hyperborea is regularly self-pollinating and there is no evidence of any pollinators.

Habitat: Full sun, damp to swampy acid soils; low-lying marshes on taiga and tundra, rarely meager dry grasslands up to 3000 m.

Fig. 10. Distribution map of P. hyperborea in North America.

Distribution Range: Apart from Greenland it is confined to sub-arctic North America but reaching Iceland in the east and Japan, Aleutians and Kamchatka to the west. (Fig. 10)

3. Corallorhiza trifida Châtel., Spec. Inaug. Corallorrhiza: 8 (1760).

Fig. 11. Circumpolar distribution map of Corallorhiza trifida.

This beautiful orchid is one of 11 species, with a circumpolar distribution, exclusively found in North (7 species), Central North America, and throughout the boreal and temperate climate regions of Europe and Asia (Fig. 11). All members of the genus are saprophytic, i.e. are dependent on fungi as a source of nutrition throughout their life cycle.

Fig. 12. Plants of Corallorhiza trifida.

Plant: Terrestrial, saprophytic, leafless, 7 - 30 cms tall Stems erect, yellow to green in woodland plants but darker (mahogany-purple) in dune populations, partly clothed by two to four long brown, whitish or green tubular sheath-like scales. Frequently growing in large colonies and in large clumps. Leaves; Leafless. Roots; The generic name Corallorhiza is derived from the Greek korallion - coral and rhiza - root; coralroot. However, there are no roots; only a rhizome like a cluster of tiny knobbed branches that, in Corallorhiza trifida, are coral-like. Plants are saprophytic, with a branching, angular rhizome, that looks like a piece of coral. Up to 10 stems are produced from the rhizome which is heavily and permanently affected by the mycorrhizal fungus. (Fig. 12)

Fig. 13. Part-inflorescence, Corallorhiza trifida.

Flower description: Flower spike; Loosely flowered, up to 10 - 15 small flowers held pointing outwards and slightly drooping. Flowers are greenish yellow to green and are often tinged or blotched inside with brown; sepals and petals vary from yellow to bright apple-green in colour and form a loose hood. Lip; 3 - 4 mm long, distinct and prominently forked, clefted about half in length into two long lobes. The lip, often snowy-white-coloured is slightly three-lobed with the central lobe being tooth-like. Spur; Absent. Ovary; Green or mahogany-purple, spindle-shaped, six-ribbed, on an extremely short, twisted stalk. Very prominent seed capsule after flowering 3 - 6 mm, cylindrical arching downwards and about equal to the lip in length and remain hanging on the stem for some time after flowering is over. (Fig. 13)

Pollinators: This species is routinely self-pollinated as the pollina from the four pollinia crumble apart, falling onto the stigma below. Pollen does not stick to any of the small insects that visit the plant. Up to 85 - 100% of the flowers are set to seed. There are, however, reports of pollination by small flies (species Scatophaga).

Habitat: Very diverse. Plants often occur on damp acid or neutral soils or in relatively dry humus e.g. beech or coniferous leaf mold or woods, mountain bogs or meadows but can even in the Sphagnum moss of low boggy shady taiga and tundra woods but also in hollows in swampy sandy dunes. This species prefers nutrient-starved, weakly acid soils.

Distribution Range: Apart from Greenland it has a circumpolar distribution, concentrated in the boreal and temperate zones throughout North America reaching Iceland and Europe and Asia in the east.

4. Neottia cordata (L.) Rich., De Orchid. Eur.: 37 (1817).

Listera cordata var. chlorantha Beauverd, Bull. Soc. Bot. Genève 17: 341 (1926).

Listera cordata subsp. nephrophylla (Rydb.) A.Löve & D.Löve, Univ. Colorado Stud. Ser. Biol. 17: 19 (1965).

Listera cordata subsp. nephrophylla (Rydb.) Hultén, Fl. Aleutian Isl.: 145 (1937).

Listera cordata subsp. nipponica (Makino.) M.Hiroe, Orchid Floers 2: 66 (1971).

Listera cordata f. rubescens P.M.Brown., N. Amer. Native Orchid J. 1: 288 (1995).

Listera cordata f. trifolia P.M.Brown., N. Amer. Native Orchid J. 1: 11 (1995), nom. Illeg.

Listera cordata lusus trifolia Asch. & Graebn., Syn. Mitteleur. Fl. 3: 891 (1907).

Listera cordata f. trifolia (Asch. & Graebn.) Puca & Stefur., in Fl. Republ. Social Roman. 12: 734 (1972).

Listera cordata f. variegata P.M.Brown., N. Amer. Native Orchid J. 1: 11 (1995).

Listera cordata f. viridens P.M.Brown., N. Amer. Native Orchid J. 1: 288 (1995).

This beautiful orchid, Neottia cordata, is one of 10 species with a circumpolar distribution, exclusively found throughout the boreal and temperate climate zones of North America reaching Greenland and Iceland in North America and across Europe and Asia is one of our tiniest native orchids. Whilst it is reported to be common it is still difficult to discover due to its size and often hidden for example in the Sphagnum mossy habitat and easily overlooked. Its "cousin", common to both North America and Europe/Asia, Neottia ovata, is much taller and much more conspicuous despite being predominantly green in colour.

Fig. 14. Plant of Neottia cordata.

Plant: Terrestrial, 5 - 25 cms tall, stems erect, frail slender and fragile and thread-like green to reddish-brown, surrounded by a few thin sheaths below the leaves. Frequently occuring solitary and sparsely distributed throughout the habitat. Leaves; One pair clasping the stem, opposite, about halfway up the stem, deep green, ovate or cordate heart-shaped 1 - 2 cms in size. (Fig. 14)

Fig. 15. Part-inflorescence, Neottia cordata.

Flower description: Flower spike; Loosely or densely flowered, up to 25 minute small flowers. Flowers are green to reddish-purple, held pointing outwards and slightly drooping. Flowers are greenish yellow to green and are often tinged or blotched with brown; sepals and petals vary from yellow to bright apple-green in colour and form a loose hood. Lip; 3 - 4 mm long, distinct and prominently forked, clefted about half in length into two long lobes, green to distinct reddish brown. Spur; Absent. Ovary; Green or mahogany-purple, spindle-shaped, six-ribbed, on an extremely short, twisted stalk. Very prominent seed capsule after flowering 3 - 6 mm, cylindrical arching downwards and about equal to the lip in length. (Fig. 15)

Pollinators: Mostly self-pollinating but possibly aided by tiny flies, gnats and hymenopterans that visit the plant and are attracted to the nectar.

Habitat: Full sun to shade, occurs in coniferous woodlands generally in wet, waterlogged or damp places, mossy marshes most frequent on wet moorland or peat bogs on nutrient-starved, weakly acid soils.

Fig. 16. Circumpolar distribution map of Neottia cordata (syn. Listera cordata).

5. Pseudorchis albida ssp straminea / Leucorchis albida ssp straminea / Platanthera albida var straminea

Pseudorchis albida has been divided into two subspecies, with P. albida subspecies albida found in the British Isles, central Europe and lowland Scandinavia and P. albida subspecies straminea, with larger and more yellow flowers, in the mountains of central Europe and Scandinavia, Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland and North America.

Pseudorchis albida (L.) A.Love, Taxon 18: 312 (1969) (accepted name) Europe to Russian Far East, E. Canada to Greenland. 10 DEN FIN FOR GRB ICE IRE NOR SWE 11 AUT BGM† CZE GER NET† POL SWI 12 FRA SPA 13 BUL ITA ROM YUG 14 BLR RUN UKR 30 ALT BRY CTA IRK KRA TVA WSB YAK 31 KAM KHA SAK 70 GNL 72 NFL QUE.

Pseudorchis albida subsp. albida. (accepted name) Europe to Russian Far East. 10 DEN FIN GRB ICE IRE NOR SWE 11 AUT BGM† CZE GER NET† POL SWI 12 FRA SPA 13 BUL ITA ROM YUG 14 BLR RUN UKR 30 ALT BRY CTA IRK KRA TVA WSB YAK 31 KAM KHA SAK.

Pseudorchis albida subsp. straminea (Fernald) A.Love & D.Love, Taxon 18: 312 (1969). (accepted name) NW. Europe to Newfoundland. 10 FIN FOR ICE NOR SWE 14 RUN 70 GNL 72 NFL QUE.

Pseudorchis albida subsp. triocouspis (Beck) E.Klein, Phyton (Horn) 40: 143 (2000). (accepted name) Europe. 10 SWE 11 AUT CZE POL SWI 13 ROM YUG.

Pseudorchis albida f. straminea (Fernald) O.Gruss & M.Wolff, Orchid Atlas: 377 (2007).

Pseudorchis albida var. tricouspis (Beck) Kreutz, Kompend. Eur. Orchid.: 135 (2004).

Searching under Platanthera albida and Leucorchis albida (see circumpolar map, Fig. 15, previous page), we find these forms are relegated to varieties of Pseudorchis.

Fig. 17. Pseudorchis albida subsp. straminea in flower.

Plant: Terrestrial, erect 8-40 cm. Roots; are forked, fusiform and fleshy. Stem; greenish, slightly angled towards the tip, with two or three whitish to brownish sheaths at the base. Leaves; 4 - 6 shiny, green oval to oval-lanceolate, sheathing leaves at the base of the stem and one or two narrower bract-like leaves above them. (Fig. 17)

Fig. 18. Pseudorchis albida subsp. straminea - inflorescence.

Flower description: Flower spike; up to 20 - 50 creamy to yellowish-green flowers in a crowded cylindrical spike. Flower; small and very pale, with the sepals whitish or creamy and the petals, lip and the small spur more greenish or yellowish and form a loose hood that encloses the similarly shaped petals and the column. Bract; green, lanceolate with pointed tip and as long as or just longer than the ovary, which it clasps. Lip; is short, broader than long and deeply three-lobed. The central lobe is triangular, usually longer, wider and blunter than the side lobes, which are narrower and more lanceolate in shape. Spur; short (2 - 3 mm), tubular or sack-shaped, blunt tipped and down-curved and contains abundant nectar. The flowers have a delicate scent of vanilla. Ovary; green, slightly twisted with three obvious ridges and strongly curled over towards the tip so that the respective flowers face more or less downwards. (Fig. 18)

Pollinators: The flowers are visited by butterflies, day-flying months and solitary bees. The narrow entrance to the spur suggests that the main pollinators are butterflies. Some self-pollination also occurs. Seed may be set by over 90% of the flowers.

Habitat: rough grasslands on poor, well-drained soils, both mildly acidic and base-rich, mountain pastures and hay meadows, road verges and grassy ledges, bogs & windswept meadows, bare limestone rocks amongst stunted dwarfed firs.

Fig. 19. Circumpolar distribution map of Pseudorchis albida (syn. Leucorchis albida).

Distribution Range: Apart from Greenland it occurs on the Faroes & Iceland , throughout the boreal/alpine zone and temperate regions in Europe to the east and west to parts of Newfoundland. (Fig. 19)

References

Luer, C.A. 1975. The Native Orchids of the United States & Canada excluding Florida. 361pp.

______ . 2005. Orchids of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. 640pp.

Author's photos for: Corallorhiza trifida (locality Sweden), Neottia cordata (locality Sweden), Pseudorchis albida (locality Switzerland).